School of Arts and Social Sciences
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Item The impact of Kenya-Egypt defence cooperation on Nile Basin internecine conflicts(African Quarterly Social Science Review, 2025-09-30) Odhiambo, Elijah Onyango Standslause; et.alPower asymmetries frequently compound basin politics, raising the question of how to manage with riparian hegemons, such as those in the Rhine, Tigris-Euphrates, Turkey, Egypt, India, and China, in addition to Nigeria or South Africa. These hydro hegemons often refuse to be drawn into mutual multilateral basin fora, preferring to deal with weaker partners individually on a bilateral basis. Despite the coexistence of security collaborations, basin-internecine conflicts have continued unabated, thus raising significant concerns.The concurrent existence of defense cooperation initiatives and water-related tensions between Kenya and Egypt poses challenges in balancing security interests and resolving disputes over shared water resources. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of Kenya-Egypt defense cooperation on Nile Basin internecine conflict. The study was underpinned by structural realism theory, securitization theory, and conflict theory. It was guided by descriptive research design. The study areas were Nairobi, Kenya, and Cairo, Egypt. The total sample size was 225, drawn from a target population of Kenya Defence Forces and Egypt Defence Forces at Berenice military base in Egypt; officials from the Ministry of Defense; officials from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Nairobi and Cairo, Egypt; the Egypt military attaché in Kenya; officials from the International Peace Support Training Centre; Kenya’s High Commissioner in Cairo, Egypt; and Kenya attachés in Cairo, Egypt. Both purposive and convenience sampling were used. Both primary and secondary data collection were used. Data was analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Study findings indicated that the Kenya-Egypt defense cooperation is viewed as an element of a much greater strategy aiming at bolstering the security architecture of the region. Its cooperation with Kenya has been both a solution to the conflict through joint peace efforts, addressing environmental concerns, shared mutual state interests, and regional stability and a causal factor to the Nile internecine conflict through promoting Egyptian hegemony and creating diplomatic hubs. The study recommends that both countries, on a sustainable basis, adopt a dyadic approach in consolidating and coordinating their strategies, devoid of either national interest obscuring the collective security endeavor.Item Al-Shabaab’s Financial Fortitude: The Link between Funding Strategies and Organizational Resiliency(Open Journal of Political Science, 2025-04-24) Odhiambo,Elijah Onyango Standslause; et.alAl-Shabaab poses a serious threat to regional stability and security. Its financial resilience is notable, as the group has maintained its operational capabilities despite increased global counter-terrorism efforts. The ongoing political instability in Somalia, combined with weak governance structures, has created an environment that allows the group to survive and adapt. Theoretical frameworks such as the Reach Theory, the Terror-Crime Nexus Model, and the Market Model provide important insights into Al-Shabaab’s strategies. A critical factor in Al-Shabaab’s effectiveness is its ability to diversify funding sources. The results of this research indicate that the organization’s territorial control is the major source of its funding. A comprehensive understanding of Al-Shabaab’s financial mechanisms is vital for informing policy decisions aimed at disrupting its funding networks.Item Influence Of Refugees’ Socio-Economic Security On The Livelihoods Of Host Community In Kakuma, Turkana West Sub-County, Turkana County, Kenya(Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS), 2025-05-30) Odhiambo, Elijah Onyango Standslause; et.alThe purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of refugees’ socio-economic security, specifically access to healthcare services and housing conditions, on the livelihoods of the host community in Kakuma, Turkana West Sub-County, Kenya. The contention of the article is that amid increasing refugee inflows, host communities face mounting pressure on limited public services and natural resources, yet the localized impacts remain underexplored. Anchored in the Refugee Aid and Development Theory and Social Exchange Theory, the research sought to evaluate how refugee access to healthcare and housing infrastructure affects service delivery, environmental sustainability, and socio-economic well-being among host residents. The study adopted a descriptive cross-sectional research design and employed a mixed-methods approach. A representative sample of 418 households from the host community was selected through stratified random sampling. Data collection combined structured questionnaires and key informant interviews. Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS for descriptive statistics, while qualitative insights were examined through thematic analysis. Ethical standards were strictly observed throughout the process. Findings reveal that shared healthcare facilities are congested, with 84% of respondents reporting overcrowding, 80% citing overstretched staff, and 73% highlighting frequent drug shortages. Refugee housing expansion was also found to affect land use and environmental stability, with 73% of respondents noting reduced access to traditional grazing land, and 76% linking refugee shelters to deforestation. The study concludes that although refugee integration brings infrastructure improvements, it simultaneously intensifies competition for scarce resources and creates tensions when host needs are inadequately addressed. It recommends inclusive planning, equitable resource allocation, improved healthcare staffing, and sustainable land use policies to enhance coexistence. The findings aim to inform policy and humanitarian strategies for fostering balanced, community-integrated refugee interventions.Item Women’s Political Participation Opportunities in the Nakuru and Narok Counties of Kenya(African Journal of Empirical Research, 2024-02-28) Odhiambo,; et.alThis paper focused on the political opportunity to empower women in Nakuru and Narok counties of Kenya by conducting comparative evaluative research. Feminist Theory informed this study, which focuses on gender disparities and how political, economic, and social factors dictate women's roles and engagements. This research aimed to assess the KB clown sketches and their impact on women's political chances. A purposive sampling procedure was adopted in which 335 participants with critical informants, ordinary citizens, and young women interested in leadership positions were sampled. Quantitative and qualitative research was used, and questionnaires, interviews, and focus group discussions were used to collect data among women to understand the current political situation. Data analysis was done in two ways, which include descriptive and thematic analysis. The quantitative data from the administered questionnaires were analyzed descriptively to produce frequencies and percentages for the findings on women’s political participation opportunities. The information collected from interviews and focus group discussions was analyzed through thematic analysis to develop trends and findings on socio-cultural perspective, policy understanding, and institutional support for women in politics. Research outcomes revealed that despite the improvement in electoral democracy and female representation in the political process, barriers including but not limited to inadequate resource mobilization, conflict of cultures and practices, and unequal/ irregular championing of gender mainstreaming policies and frameworks still inhibit inclusion. These policies were deemed critical because they informed women as to how they could extend effective democracy in political systems while also ensuring that people in a community understood the gains that could be derived from having women's leadership. Research concluded that this can be achieved through efforts to strengthen mentorship programs, increase public appreciation for the importance of women's participation in leadership and governance, and improve the application of supportive policies and laws. Some recommendations focus on political capacity-building and gender sensitization training to empower women for political positions and call on the political parties to encourage gender parity on their list of candidates. Using media and technology in leadership and management to promote role-modeling to women leaders is also essential in establishing relationships and collaboration with other regional and global organizations on lobbying for women's political rights. Research into these matters should be conducted with backup data for a substantive approach to the progress of Nakuru, Narok, and other counties. Individually, these measures present a trajectory toward improving the environment of women's political participation in Kenya.Item The Nature of Gender Mainstreaming Policies in Nakuru and Narok Counties, Kenya(African Journal of Empirical Research, 2024-02-18) Odhiambo , Elijah Onyango Standslause; et.alThis study examines the implementation of gender mainstreaming policies at various levels of public administration in Nakuru and Narok Counties, Kenya. It explores the integration of global conceptions, national policymaking, local self-governance, and feminist ideology in achieving gender equality. The research addresses the debate on the capacity of local versus national governments to implement gender equality initiatives. Feminist Theory guided this research. Using a comparative evaluative study design, the study investigates why these policies have not effectively increased women’s political participation. The target population comprised of elected leaders, civil society and the general public of Nakuru and Narok Counties. Stratified random sampling was employed to derive a sample of 335 respondents comprising of 92 elected leaders, 22 civil society members and 221 members of the general public. Data were collected through questionnaires, interviews, and focus group discussions, involving key informants and community members. Quantitative data was analyzed through descriptive statistics while qualitative data from interviews and focus group discussions was analyzed through content analysis. Findings revealed that there was no good familiarity with gender mainstreaming by 135(40.3%). Most of those unfamiliar with gender mainstreaming were from Narok, 68 (50.7%) followed by Nakuru 67(33.3%). Similarly, research showed that a significant portion of respondents in both counties agreed to their awareness of equality and equity, with 32.8% (66) in Nakuru and 28.4% (38) in Narok. This suggests that many people in both Counties recognize the importance of these concepts. The study concludes that the government has significantly shaped these policies, which have advanced gender equality in various ways. However, challenges remain, requiring a comprehensive approach that includes legal reforms, cultural shifts, and targeted support programs. The research recommended that promoting gender-friendly political cultures, challenging patriarchal norms, and providing support and training are essential for empowering women to take on leadership roles and contribute to the political process. This holistic approach is crucial for achieving gender parity in politics and ensuring women’s voices are heard in decision-making.Item Challenges to Peaceful Nominations: Youth Participation in Politics in Homa Bay County, Kenya(African Journal of Empirical Research, 2024-02-18) Odhiambo,Elijah Onyango Standslause; et.alThis research article underscored challenges to peaceful nominations by focusing on youth participation in politics of Homa Bay County Kenya. The research reviewed various literatures that informed the findings of the study. The article was informed by two theories; institutionalism theory and pluralism theory. Since it was a qualitative study, it adopted cross sectional research design. Data was collected by use of interview guides, focus group discussions and secondary sources. It was analyzed by use of content and thematic analysis. The analyzed data was presented by use of themes and verbatim quotations. The researcher found out that; Political violence, fueled by socio-economic and ethnic tensions, disrupts peaceful nominations in Homa Bay, compromising democratic integrity and limiting youth participation. It concluded that; Political violence undermines Homa Bay’s democratic stability, fostering fear and exclusion. Institutional and pluralism theories support reforms for inclusive electoral processes. Therefore, the researcher recommended that; Strengthen electoral institutions, ensure transparency, foster socio-economic development, and promote dialogue to reduce political violence and support youth engagement.Item Assessing the Effectiveness of Local-Based Approaches Adopted Towards Addressing Terrorism in Lamu County, Kenya and Baadadhe District, Somalia(African Journal of Empirical Research, 2024-02-18) Odhiambo, Elijah Onyango Standslause; et.alIn the global context, terrorism has evolved into a complex and transnational threat. Al-Shabaab posed significant threats, particularly to East African countries, due to its capacity for numerous attacks in Somalia and neighboring nations. Despite employing alternative strategies, such as a multiagency and comprehensive government approach to tackle terrorism in Lamu and Baadadhe, acts of terror persisted in the region. The study explored the efficacy of a populace-centered approach in curbing terrorism in Somalia and Kenya. The populace-centered approach aimed to actively involve the local population in Lamu County, Basuba Ward, in socio-economic development initiated by security personnel to address the root cause of insecurity problems. The approach was guided by the Securitization theory, System theory, and Power theory, which held a significant relationship with the terror threats and insecurity challenges in Lamu County and Baadadhe district. The study employed a descriptive research design with stratified sampling, with target population 4506 and a sample size of 363 obtained through Slovin sampling formula. It gathered stakeholders' perspectives through questionnaires, interviews, and group discussions. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses . Quantitative data was analyzed through statistical analysis while qualitative data was analyzed thematic analysis. The analysis revealed community responses to terrorism, including physical and cyber threats, through initiatives like neighborhood watch groups and religious collaborations. The study highlighted the importance of strengthening existing structures like neighborhood watch groups and enhancing collaborations with religious leaders and schools. The study concluded that the populace involvement in countering terrorism in Lamu, Kenya and Baadadhe, Somalia reflects a vigilant and multifaceted approach encompassing various aspects, from physical to cyber threats. Further, the research concluded that populace-centered approach is effective in curbing terrorism through information sharing. The study recommended for active involvement of community leaders in security committees and advocated for a legal framework supporting a populace-centered approach to counter-terrorism. Policymakers and security agencies should consider diverse economic and environmental contexts in Lamu County, Kenya, Baadadhe, SomaliaItem Contribution of Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices on Food Availability among Smallholder Farmers in Laikipia County, Kenya(Rigorous Journal of Research and Development (RJRD), 2024-11-13) Recha, Charles W.; et.alClimate change has negatively impacted on bio-diversity, rural livelihoods, national and global economies. Several smallholder farmers in Laikipia County have adopted a number of Climate Smart Agricultural Practices (CSAPs) as mitigation measures and coping strategies, including water harvesting and use, conservation agriculture, agroforestry, pest and disease control, and crop diversification. This study sought to assess the contribution of climate smart agricultural practices on food availability among smallholder farmers in Laikipia County, Kenya. It was guided by the action theory of adaptation and the correlation research design was used. The accessible population were 74,282 households who were practicing small scale farming in Laikipia County during the 2021/2022 cropping season. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to obtain a representative sample of 384. Questionnaire and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) were used to collect primary data. Descriptive and inferential statistics (ordered logistic regression) using Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) program version 28 were used to analyze data. Results showed that food availability significantly improved as a result of climate-smart agriculture [the coefficient for Climate-Smart Agriculture (0.400) was positive and statistically significant at 5% (p-value = 0.000)]. Smallholder farmers who have not implemented CSAPs recommendations should be encouraged to start practicing due to its positive contribution to food availability.Item Extent of Adoption of Selected Climate smart Agricultural Practices among Smallholder Farmers in Laikipia County, Kenya(International Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 2024-08-31) Recha, Charles W.; et.alAim: Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an integrative approach to address the challenges of food security and climate change. This study sought to assess the extent of adoption of climate smart agricultural practices in Laikipia County, Kenya. Study Design: This study used correlation research design. Place and Duration of Study: The study was carried out in Laikipia county. Specifically in the sub counties Laikipia West, Laikipia East and Laikipia North. The study was carried out in July – August 2022. Methodology: A multi-stage sampling technique was used to obtain a representative sample of 384 smallholder farmers households across the three sub-counties. Systematic random sampling was used to select every tenth household from the sample size. A questionnaire was used to collect data from the sampled households (all of whom were smallholder farmers). Descriptive statistical analysis was used to determine the extent of adoption of selected Climate Smart Agricultural Practices among smallholder farmers in Laikipia County, Kenya. The study used a chi-square (X²) test of independence to establish a relationship in the adoption of CSA practices across the three study sites Results: This study found that crop diversification (87%), mixed farming (crop farming and livestock keeping) (83%), use of pesticides and fungicides (80%) and crop rotation (74%) were the most adopted climate smart agricultural practices (CSAPs). On extent of adoption, full adoption was highest on pest and disease control (54%) and diversification of farming practices (52%); partial adoption was highest in conservation agriculture (54%); and non-adoption was highest on agroforestry (42%). Conclusion: It is recommended that stakeholders should improve the adoption of water harvesting/use, conservation agriculture and agroforestry – critical climate smart agricultural practices in semi-arid environments.